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societies in Oceania and Africa practice brideprice. In such societies, women contribute a
great deal to primary subsistence activities, but have lower social status than men since
men make more political decisions than women. In addition to emerging gender
stratification, bridewealth-based societies, including the Gabrielino, have practiced
polygamy occasionally among elite families.
To summarize, the materials and language of social relationships are indicative of
egalitarian foraging communities in earlier cultural periods and incipient complex
foraging and fishing-based societies in the early ethnographic period.

3.6 Religion & Spirituality
For extended discussions of the belief systems of Takic speaking peoples, see Kroeber
1976, Harrington 1981, Reid 1968, Hudson 1979. For discussion of the religious belief
systems of Chumash groups, see Blackburn 1975, Hudson 1977, Hudson 1978,
Schiffman 1988, Lee 1981. Recorded by Gabrielino ethnographers, the names of various
deities and mythological beings include Chukit, Kwawar, Kweyaxxomar, Maniisar,
Toroovem, Woyoot (Wiwyoot), Yooyavoyn and others.
Non-human supernaturals include the sun (G. Taamet, Chumash: Kakunupmawa), moon
(G. Mwaar, Ch. ‘alahtin), evil spirits (G. Shiisho’, Ch. ‘alahwich ‘isqap), the Morning
Star (G. Paahavet, Ch. ‘alnahyît ‘i’aqiwî), and the earth (G. ‘ooxor, Ch. hutash).
Of the human supernaturals, Chukit (Kroeber 1976:623) is described as a mythical leader
and sister of four unnamed brothers. She is described as connected with, or inseminated
by, a supernatural force of lightning and gave birth to a boy who was able to speak at
birth. Maniisar is a female leader as well, a daughter of a village elder. Maniisar is related
to the shamanic and initiation drug, jimson weed. Although women are not known in the
ethnographic record for consuming jimson weed, possibly they are linked with it through
their plant collecting and processing activities. Other female supernaturals include the
Pleiades stars who are represented by a set of seven sisters who are married to a set of
seven brothers. When the brothers acted without honor by taking their wives’ hunted
meat, the women rose to the sky, becoming a constellation of beautiful bright stars. The
youngest husband was allowed to follow, having not made the food transgression.
Of the male supernaturals, Kwawar is a deity associated with creation. He created a set of
giants and earthquakes rumble when he walks. Woyoot is believed to have died and
transformed into the body of an eagle. Chengiichngech (Chingichngish) is reportedly a
“wise man” who developed a following among Tongvas, Luiseños, and Acjachemem
(Juaneños) (Boscana 1933).
Regarding animal-form supernaturals, animals such as raven, coyote, and rattlesnake
appear as mythical beings in Tongva and other local groups’ myths. Porpoises, for
example, are believed to watch the world, circling it to make sure that all is in proper
social harmony. Other supernatural beings who also live in the sea are known as
Toroovem. These beneficent beings wear feather headdresses and take care of the world.
Crow and Raven are believed to call out to approaching strangers if the are to be trusted,
and often give advise to newcomers. Tongvas and other local peoples carve(d) animal
figure effigies from stone. Effigies of pelicans and whales are two of the more common
effigies recovered from prehistoric sites. The purpose and meaning of the small, palm-

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